Health Nutrition And Fitness
Health, nutrition and fitness are the three interrelated areas that determine an individual’s sense of happiness and well being.
Health
Health involves the physical, mental and spiritual levels of the individual. A physically healthy person is one who can carry out normal daily physical activities and respond to emergencies with out undo fatigue or pain. The health part of health, nutrition and fitness is achieved through a balanced program of good nutrition, healthy physical activity, continuous education and mental activities, and social and spiritual activities. Your choices of the food you eat and your physical activities affect both your short term and long term health (how you feel now and in the future). You may be getting plenty to eat, but if it is not a proper balance of choices from all five of the basic food groups you may be adding fat to your body without generating the energy to burn the calories and energy to the cells to carry out their functions. Healthy physical activity helps burn off any excess calories you consume, and keeps muscles and joints flexible and strong. Your efforts of continued education (reading, attending seminars, as well as attending formal education classes), and spiritual activities (social activities, attending devotional services, meditation, etc) provides you with a sense of accomplishment and well being.
An important part of good health is being physically fit and maintaining proper body weight. Maintaining good health requires following a nutritional diet, and exercising to build and maintain muscles, and to burn of any excess calories.
Nutrition
The nutritional health part of health, nutrition and fitness deals with the food we consume to maintain our health and provide energy to carry on our daily lives. Nutrition is the process of nurturing or being nourished; the total of all the processes that a plant or animal uses to take in and process food substances to maintain a healthy life.
A healthy nutrition life style requires a balanced diet of food selected from the five basic food groups, fruits, vegetables, naturally calcium rich dairy products or calcium enriched products, whole grains, and protein (lean meat fish, peas and beans). Other nutritional factors should also be considered. Most fruits and vegetables are better if they are consumed raw because heating destroys some of the healthy nutrients. Steaming and broiling food is better than boiling or frying foods. Preparing fresh fruits and vegetables is better than processed or prepared foods. The prepared foods generally contain more salt (sodium) than necessary and other flavor enhancing substances. Some of these additives do not add any nutritional value to the food and may even be harmful to your health.
More nutritional factors to consider are the variety of the fruits and vegetables in our diet. Nutritional data shows that dark green vegetables (romaine lettuce, kale, broccoli, etc.), and orange vegetables (carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkin and summer squash) provides more nutritional value than some of the less colorful vegetables.
Here are even more nutrition facts. Some foods contribute to burning fat. Green tea contributes to fat burning by increasing the body’s metabolism and increasing energy level. Foods high in protein are more difficult to digest so they require more calories in the digestive process.
Good nutrition practices may not be sufficient for some people they may require unique supplements such as CoEnzimeQ10 or others.
Physical Fitness
Physical fitness part of fitness, health and nutrition is the ability to carry out daily activities, enjoy leisure activities and have a healthy immune system to resist disease and infection. Developing and maintaining good physical fitness requires a balance of good nutrition and varied physical exercise.
There are there elements to physical fitness: specific fitness the ability to perform daily functions related to work or recreation, general fitness the ability to enjoy leisure time and a sense of peace with the environment, preparedness the ability to over come or avoid emergencies. There also three factors in achieving good physical fitness good nutrition, physical exercise and restful (sleep). The nutrition maintains the health of the cells and provides the energy to perform the exercises.
Physical exercise may be used to accomplish work to earn a living, participate in athletic events, develop and maintain healthy cardiovascular system, or control body weight.
Physical fitness and how physical fitness is achieved varies depending on individual. If a person is involved in an occupation that requires vigorous activity and has good nutrition possibly no other exercise is needed to maintain a fit body. However, even people who are who work hard at their occupation may need additional cardiovascular exercise to keep their heart and blood vessels in optimum condition.
People whose profession does not require vigorous physical exercise special effort is required to achieve and maintain physical fitness. A good nutritional diet is the obvious starting point. Some easy things are use stairs rather than elevators, park a little farther from the office or store entrance, throw away the television remote, change channels the old fashion way, and walk to near by offices or neighbors rather than using the telephone.
These efforts will help, but more vigorous physical exercise is needed for good physical fitness. For cardiovascular health a routine of physical exercise over a period a minimum of 20 minutes three times per week is required. The best and generally most convenient cardiovascular exercise is walking. Another good cardiovascular exercise is swimming. Swimming will also help in building and toning muscles.
The other factor in developing and maintaining physical fitness is strength exercise to build and tone muscle and to burn fat. Strength exercises are good for weight management because they stimulate muscle growth even after the exercise has been completed. This means that the body continues to burn fat for an extended period of time.
Mental Health
Mental health, as it applies to health nutrition and fitness, is the way we think, how we feel and how we act as we interact with our surroundings. Our mental health contributes to our relations with other people, how we make decision, make choices and how we cope with stress. People with good mental health are able to control their emotions, feelings and behavior. Keeping the mind active through reading, playing games, and an active social life contributes to good mental health.
Spiritual Health
Spirituality can be defined as sensitivity or attachment to religion, or as a state condition of being spiritual. Some people ignore or overlook the importance of spirituality in relation to health nutrition and fitness, because they relate spirituality only to religion. Through out history man has struggled with the concept of spirituality. Basically spirituality is the struggle to become the most perfect person or individual. The path to achieve this goal may be through seeking external help through religion of some form, or internal through meditation and study of both present and past human interactions.
The above is based on personal study, experiences and observations through out my life.
Nutritional issues of HIV/AIDS Orphan in Sagamu South West, Nigeria
INTRODUCTION
Two types of retrovirus (HIV 1 and HIV 2) were known to cause AIDS worldwide; predominantly HIV 1.transmission in both could be by sexual contact, transfusion of blood or blood products, contact with sharp objects and vertically from mother to child. However, HIV 2 is transmitted less early and has a longer period between infection and development of AIDS [i]. Worldwide, more than fifty million children under 18 years have been orphaned due to AIDS, more that twelve million of these children leave in sub-Sahara Africa [ii].
The concept of orphan varies from one cultural context to another but refers to children (age 0-14) whose either or both parents have died [iii]. The age of orphan is fairly constant across countries with 15% being 0-4 years old, 35% 5-9 years old and 50% 10-14 years old [iv] .The vulnerability of children to health and social mishaps increase long before the death of their parents or guardians. Children watch their parents deteriorate and eventually die. They are often confronted with loss of family identity, increased malnutrition, reduced education opportunity, exploitative child labour and child abuse, and increased susceptibility to HIV infection [v]
Inconsistent findings in nutritional status of orphan and other children make vulnerable by HIV/AIDS make it difficult to assess if orphaned and other vulnerable children have specific nutritional needs separate from invulnerable children [vi] .Malnutrition and HIV have similar deleterious effect on the immune system [vii] . In both malnutrition and HIV, there is reduced CD4 and CD8 T-lymphocytes [viii], delayed cutaneous sensitivity, reduced bactericidal properties [ix] and impaired serological response after immunizations [x]..HIV/AIDS have a detrimental impact on household food security and nutrition in endemic areas. Household problems start as soon as the first adult become sick which results in a decline or loss in the productive capacity of individuals and households, decline or complete loss of household incomes [xi].
Concurrently, there is increase in household expenses as a result of increase health care costs [xii] .Household assets are often sold to offset there effects resulting in more poverty and more food insecurity [xiii]. Children might be forced to discontinue their schooling due to household engagements and inability to afford school expenses.
Thus, food assistance can have multiple objectives in supporting food-insecure households and this can enable them to participate in treating or preventing malnutrition [xiv]. Linking participation in food assistance program with nutrition education and skills training can foster self reliance [xv]
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Fifty HIV/AIDS orphaned children whose parents were attending Sagamu Community Centre (a non-governmental organization) were used for the study. The children were all screened for HIV/AIDS and they were all non-reactive (seronegative). The control group comprises of fifty children who were not orphaned, selected randomly amongst the 1,495 people that attended the centre during the period of this study. They were all HIV negative
Structured questionnaire were administered to the parents of the children in the control group as well as guardians of the orphaned children to obtain additional information on their nutritional status. Certain anthropometrics measures were taken to assess the nutritional status; these include height, weight, mid-upper arm circumference, and the head circumference. The BMI was computed in both the orphaned and non-orphaned children.
Five millilitres of blood were aseptically collected from both the subjects and the control group with minimum stasis, using pyrogen-free needles and disposable plastic syringes. Two millilitres of the collected blood was put in an EDTA bottle for the determination of haemoglobin concentration while the remaining three millilitres was dispensed into heparinized bottle for the determination of total protein, albumin, calcium, and phosphate levels.
Serum haemoglobin was determined by standard method [xvi] other parameters were estimated as described total protein [xvii], albumin [xviii], calcium [xix] and phosphate [xx] in both subject and control groups. The obtained data were analyzed using SPSS version 10.0 chi-square was used to determine differences between the subject and control groups.
RESULT
Table 1 shows anthropometric measurements of the subjects and the control. There was no significant difference in the anthropometric measurements the subjects and the control (p>0.05) Significant difference in the height for age which is a measure of stunted growth was observed between the orphan and control (p<0.05), but no significant difference in weight for age and weight for height. (Table 2).
Table 3 shows mean concentration of haemoglobin, total protein, albumin, calcium phosphate and globulin. Significant difference in mean between the orphan and control (p<0.05) was observed for all parameters
Table 4 shows type of nutrition taken for breakfast, lunch, and dinner in both orphan and control group. 3.8% of orphan did not take breakfast, 77.3% of breakfast meal was carbohydrate while .protein was 18.9%. 82.0% of lunch meal was carbohydrate while .protein was 18.0%, 85.5% of breakfast meal was carbohydrate while .protein was 14.5%
Table 5 reveals Mean body mass index in stratified age groups in subjects and controls There was no significant difference (p > 0.05) between the age groups < 6 years, 7 – 11 and > 12 years of subjects compared to the control groups.
From the data obtained, it was observed that paternal orphan was the commonest (60%), while double orphan was the least (4%), maternal orphan constitute only 36%. The sponsorship of education of the orphans was done mainly by their mothers (50%), while sponsorship by the father and other relatives constitute 26% and 16% respectively.
DISCUSSION
Nutritional status in children, are usually assessed by determining their weight, height, head circumference, and mid-upper arm circumference. Values obtained that are below the normal range for individual age group is considered to reflect a malnutrition state. Lack of social support for orphan from family members as a result of stigmatization and discrimination contribute to reduced food availability and hence inadequate dietary intake by orphans
There were no significant differences observed in the anthropometrics between the orphaned and non-orphaned children. However, there were significant differences in their plasma levels of hemoglobin, total protein, albumin, globulin, calcium and inorganic phosphate. These biochemical parameters were significantly lower (p < 0.05) in orphaned children than non-orphaned children. The reduction in the above parameters amongst orphan children is a reflection of the poor nutritional status exhibited by the orphaned children in comparison to non-orphaned children.
Households affected by HIV/AIDS are usually confronted by severe decline in food availability (qualitatively and quantitatively) or food insecurity due to complete loss of the socio-economic contributions of either or both of their parents. The necessary home needs of such orphaned children are catered for by the grandparents or often by the guardians, who also have their immediate family to take care of.
The stunted growth observed in these orphans might contribute to further stigmatization and discrimination by fellow community people. Most times, the orphans with stunted growth are often tagged HIV/AIDS infected individuals, after all both malnutrition and HIV/AIDS have similar presentation. In this situation, a diet rich in protein, energy, micronutrients especially vitamin A is essential to bring about drastic changes in the health and physical appearances of such orphans.
The significantly low globulin level (p < 0.05) in the orphans measures the immune status. It suggests that there are some degrees of immunosuppression in the orphaned children and they are thus vulnerable to multiple infections. The decreased immunity associated with malnutrition lead to increased susceptibility to infections (including HIV infection) which in turn lead to increased nutrient requirements. If these requirements are not adequately met, it may lead to more malnutrition state. As HIV/AIDS prone orphans to malnutrition, malnutrition makes orphan susceptible to HIV/AIDS.
REFERECES
[i] HIV/AIDS care and treatment: In a clinical course for people caring for persons living with HIV/AIDS ,2003; pp 24.
[ii] UNIAIDS: Report on the global AIDS epidemic, chapter 4, the impact of AIDS on people and societies, 2006.
[iii] Hunter,S. and Williamson,J.: Children on the brink;Strategies to Support Children Isolated
by HIV/AIDS,Arlindton, Virgina, 2002.
[iv] Monasch, J. and Ties Boerma: Orphanhood and child care patterns in sub-Saharan Africa. An analysis of National Surveys from 40 countries. AIDS 18 (suppl. 2); 2004;. Pg 555-565
[v] De Wagt, A. and Conndly, M.: Orphan and the impact of HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. Food nutrition and agriculture 2005; 34;pg 24-31
[vi] Rivers, J, Silverstre,E., Mason,J.: Nutritional and Food Security Status of orphans and vulnerable children, report of a research supported by UNICEF, IFPRI, and WFP, 2004.
[vii] Piwoz, E.G.: Nutrition and HIV/AIDS; evidence, gaps and priority actions, 2004.
[viii] Suttajit,M.: Advances in nutrition support for quality of life in HIV/AIDS, Asia Pac. J Clin. Nutr. 2007; 16, suppl., pp318-322,
[ix] Beisel,W.R.: Nutrition and immune function; overview. Nutri. 1996; 126, pg 26115-26155
[x] Kroon,F.P.,van Dissel,J.T.,de Jong, J.C., and van Forth,R.: Antibody response to influenza,
tetanus, and pneumococcal vaccines in HIV-seropositive individuals in relation to the
[xi] Gillespie, S. and Kadayila,S.: HIV/AIDS and food nutrition security, from evidence in action, food policy review no 7, Washington, DC,IFPRI,2005.
[xii] Alban, A. and Anderson, N.B.: Putting it together; AIDS and the millennium development goals, 2005
[xiii] Barnett,A. and Rugalema,G.: HIV/AIDS, International Food Policy Research Institute,2020 focus no 05, brief no 09, Washington, DC, IFPRI,2001.
[xiv] Grant, F.: Nutrition interventions for PLWHAs and the use of Ready-to-use Therapeutic Foods, presentation at the FANTA project, academy for Educational Development, Washington, DC, 2006.
[xv] Greenaway, K. Greenblott,K.,Hagens,K.: Targeted Food Assistance in the context of HIV/AIDS, Gauteny, South Africa; consortium for southern Africa Food Security Emergency(C-SAFE) learning centre,2004.
[xvi] Kayira,K., Greenaway, K., Greenblott, K: Food for assents; adopting programming to an HIV/AIDS context, Gauteny, South Africa; consortium for southern Africa Food Security Emergency(C-SAFE) learning centre,2004.
[xvii] Dacie JV & Lewis SM Practical Haematology, p 10. London.
ChurchillLivingstone (1984
[xviii] Gornall AG, Bardwill CJ, David M.M: Determination of serum proteins by
means of the biuret reaction. J Biol Chem 1949; 177: 751-756.
[xix] Doumas B.T., Watson W.A and Biggs H.G: Albumin standards and the measurement of serum albumin with bromcresol green. Clin. Chim. Acta 1971; 31: 87.
[xx] Stern J. and Lewis W.H.P: The colorimetric estimation of calcium in serum with o-cresolphthalein Complexone. Clin. Chim. Acta 1957; 2: 576
[xxi] Fiske C. H. and SubbaRow Y:. The colorimetric determination of phosphorus. J.Biol.Chem. 1925; 66: 375
INTRODUCTION
Two types of retrovirus (HIV 1 and HIV 2) were known to cause AIDS worldwide; predominantly HIV 1.transmission in both could be by sexual contact, transfusion of blood or blood products, contact with sharp objects and vertically from mother to child. However, HIV 2 is transmitted less early and has a longer period between infection and development of AIDS [i]. Worldwide, more than fifty million children under 18 years have been orphaned due to AIDS, more that twelve million of these children leave in sub-Sahara Africa [ii].
The concept of orphan varies from one cultural context to another but refers to children (age 0-14) whose either or both parents have died [iii]. The age of orphan is fairly constant across countries with 15% being 0-4 years old, 35% 5-9 years old and 50% 10-14 years old [iv] .The vulnerability of children to health and social mishaps increase long before the death of their parents or guardians. Children watch their parents deteriorate and eventually die. They are often confronted with loss of family identity, increased malnutrition, reduced education opportunity, exploitative child labour and child abuse, and increased susceptibility to HIV infection [v]
Inconsistent findings in nutritional status of orphan and other children make vulnerable by HIV/AIDS make it difficult to assess if orphaned and other vulnerable children have specific nutritional needs separate from invulnerable children [vi] .Malnutrition and HIV have similar deleterious effect on the immune system [vii] . In both malnutrition and HIV, there is reduced CD4 and CD8 T-lymphocytes [viii], delayed cutaneous sensitivity, reduced bactericidal properties [ix] and impaired serological response after immunizations [x]..HIV/AIDS have a detrimental impact on household food security and nutrition in endemic areas. Household problems start as soon as the first adult become sick which results in a decline or loss in the productive capacity of individuals and households, decline or complete loss of household incomes [xi].
Concurrently, there is increase in household expenses as a result of increase health care costs [xii] .Household assets are often sold to offset there effects resulting in more poverty and more food insecurity [xiii]. Children might be forced to discontinue their schooling due to household engagements and inability to afford school expenses.
Thus, food assistance can have multiple objectives in supporting food-insecure households and this can enable them to participate in treating or preventing malnutrition [xiv]. Linking participation in food assistance program with nutrition education and skills training can foster self reliance [xv]
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Fifty HIV/AIDS orphaned children whose parents were attending Sagamu Community Centre (a non-governmental organization) were used for the study. The children were all screened for HIV/AIDS and they were all non-reactive (seronegative). The control group comprises of fifty children who were not orphaned, selected randomly amongst the 1,495 people that attended the centre during the period of this study. They were all HIV negative
Structured questionnaire were administered to the parents of the children in the control group as well as guardians of the orphaned children to obtain additional information on their nutritional status. Certain anthropometrics measures were taken to assess the nutritional status; these include height, weight, mid-upper arm circumference, and the head circumference. The BMI was computed in both the orphaned and non-orphaned children.
Five millilitres of blood were aseptically collected from both the subjects and the control group with minimum stasis, using pyrogen-free needles and disposable plastic syringes. Two millilitres of the collected blood was put in an EDTA bottle for the determination of haemoglobin concentration while the remaining three millilitres was dispensed into heparinized bottle for the determination of total protein, albumin, calcium, and phosphate levels.
Serum haemoglobin was determined by standard method [xvi] other parameters were estimated as described total protein [xvii], albumin [xviii], calcium [xix] and phosphate [xx] in both subject and control groups. The obtained data were analyzed using SPSS version 10.0 chi-square was used to determine differences between the subject and control groups.
RESULT
Table 1 shows anthropometric measurements of the subjects and the control. There was no significant difference in the anthropometric measurements the subjects and the control (p>0.05) Significant difference in the height for age which is a measure of stunted growth was observed between the orphan and control (p<0.05), but no significant difference in weight for age and weight for height. (Table 2).
Table 3 shows mean concentration of haemoglobin, total protein, albumin, calcium phosphate and globulin. Significant difference in mean between the orphan and control (p<0.05) was observed for all parameters
Table 4 shows type of nutrition taken for breakfast, lunch, and dinner in both orphan and control group. 3.8% of orphan did not take breakfast, 77.3% of breakfast meal was carbohydrate while .protein was 18.9%. 82.0% of lunch meal was carbohydrate while .protein was 18.0%, 85.5% of breakfast meal was carbohydrate while .protein was 14.5%
Table 5 reveals Mean body mass index in stratified age groups in subjects and controls There was no significant difference (p > 0.05) between the age groups < 6 years, 7 – 11 and > 12 years of subjects compared to the control groups.
From the data obtained, it was observed that paternal orphan was the commonest (60%), while double orphan was the least (4%), maternal orphan constitute only 36%. The sponsorship of education of the orphans was done mainly by their mothers (50%), while sponsorship by the father and other relatives constitute 26% and 16% respectively.
DISCUSSION
Nutritional status in children, are usually assessed by determining their weight, height, head circumference, and mid-upper arm circumference. Values obtained that are below the normal range for individual age group is considered to reflect a malnutrition state. Lack of social support for orphan from family members as a result of stigmatization and discrimination contribute to reduced food availability and hence inadequate dietary intake by orphans
There were no significant differences observed in the anthropometrics between the orphaned and non-orphaned children. However, there were significant differences in their plasma levels of hemoglobin, total protein, albumin, globulin, calcium and inorganic phosphate. These biochemical parameters were significantly lower (p < 0.05) in orphaned children than non-orphaned children. The reduction in the above parameters amongst orphan children is a reflection of the poor nutritional status exhibited by the orphaned children in comparison to non-orphaned children.
Households affected by HIV/AIDS are usually confronted by severe decline in food availability (qualitatively and quantitatively) or food insecurity due to complete loss of the socio-economic contributions of either or both of their parents. The necessary home needs of such orphaned children are catered for by the grandparents or often by the guardians, who also have their immediate family to take care of.
The stunted growth observed in these orphans might contribute to further stigmatization and discrimination by fellow community people. Most times, the orphans with stunted growth are often tagged HIV/AIDS infected individuals, after all both malnutrition and HIV/AIDS have similar presentation. In this situation, a diet rich in protein, energy, micronutrients especially vitamin A is essential to bring about drastic changes in the health and physical appearances of such orphans.
The significantly low globulin level (p < 0.05) in the orphans measures the immune status. It suggests that there are some degrees of immunosuppression in the orphaned children and they are thus vulnerable to multiple infections. The decreased immunity associated with malnutrition lead to increased susceptibility to infections (including HIV infection) which in turn lead to increased nutrient requirements. If these requirements are not adequately met, it may lead to more malnutrition state. As HIV/AIDS prone orphans to malnutrition, malnutrition makes orphan susceptible to HIV/AIDS.
REFERECES
[i] HIV/AIDS care and treatment: In a clinical course for people caring for persons living with HIV/AIDS ,2003; pp 24.
[ii] UNIAIDS: Report on the global AIDS epidemic, chapter 4, the impact of AIDS on people and societies, 2006.
[iii] Hunter,S. and Williamson,J.: Children on the brink;Strategies to Support Children Isolated
by HIV/AIDS,Arlindton, Virgina, 2002.
[iv] Monasch, J. and Ties Boerma: Orphanhood and child care patterns in sub-Saharan Africa. An analysis of National Surveys from 40 countries. AIDS 18 (suppl. 2); 2004;. Pg 555-565
[v] De Wagt, A. and Conndly, M.: Orphan and the impact of HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. Food nutrition and agriculture 2005; 34;pg 24-31
[vi] Rivers, J, Silverstre,E., Mason,J.: Nutritional and Food Security Status of orphans and vulnerable children, report of a research supported by UNICEF, IFPRI, and WFP, 2004.
[vii] Piwoz, E.G.: Nutrition and HIV/AIDS; evidence, gaps and priority actions, 2004.
[viii] Suttajit,M.: Advances in nutrition support for quality of life in HIV/AIDS, Asia Pac. J Clin. Nutr. 2007; 16, suppl., pp318-322,
[ix] Beisel,W.R.: Nutrition and immune function; overview. Nutri. 1996; 126, pg 26115-26155
[x] Kroon,F.P.,van Dissel,J.T.,de Jong, J.C., and van Forth,R.: Antibody response to influenza,
tetanus, and pneumococcal vaccines in HIV-seropositive individuals in relation to the
[xi] Gillespie, S. and Kadayila,S.: HIV/AIDS and food nutrition security, from evidence in action, food policy review no 7, Washington, DC,IFPRI,2005.
[xii] Alban, A. and Anderson, N.B.: Putting it together; AIDS and the millennium development goals, 2005
[xiii] Barnett,A. and Rugalema,G.: HIV/AIDS, International Food Policy Research Institute,2020 focus no 05, brief no 09, Washington, DC, IFPRI,2001.
[xiv] Grant, F.: Nutrition interventions for PLWHAs and the use of Ready-to-use Therapeutic Foods, presentation at the FANTA project, academy for Educational Development, Washington, DC, 2006.
[xv] Greenaway, K. Greenblott,K.,Hagens,K.: Targeted Food Assistance in the context of HIV/AIDS, Gauteny, South Africa; consortium for southern Africa Food Security Emergency(C-SAFE) learning centre,2004.
[xvi] Kayira,K., Greenaway, K., Greenblott, K: Food for assents; adopting programming to an HIV/AIDS context, Gauteny, South Africa; consortium for southern Africa Food Security Emergency(C-SAFE) learning centre,2004.
[xvii] Dacie JV & Lewis SM Practical Haematology, p 10. London.
ChurchillLivingstone (1984
[xviii] Gornall AG, Bardwill CJ, David M.M: Determination of serum proteins by
means of the biuret reaction. J Biol Chem 1949; 177: 751-756.
[xix] Doumas B.T., Watson W.A and Biggs H.G: Albumin standards and the measurement of serum albumin with bromcresol green. Clin. Chim. Acta 1971; 31: 87.
[xx] Stern J. and Lewis W.H.P: The colorimetric estimation of calcium in serum with o-cresolphthalein Complexone. Clin. Chim. Acta 1957; 2: 576
[xxi] Fiske C. H. and SubbaRow Y:. The colorimetric determination of phosphorus. J.Biol.Chem. 1925; 66: 375